Carbon nanotube temperature and pressure sensors

ABSTRACT

The present invention, in one embodiment, provides a method of measuring pressure or temperature using a sensor including a sensor element composed of a plurality of carbon nanotubes. In one example, the resistance of the plurality of carbon nanotubes is measured in response to the application of temperature or pressure. The changes in resistance are then recorded and correlated to temperature or pressure. In one embodiment, the present invention provides for independent measurement of pressure or temperature using the sensors disclosed herein.

This invention was made with government support under contract no.DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to sensors composed of nanoscalestructures, such as carbon nanotubes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Materials technology has had a profound impact on the evolution of humancivilization. In the 21^(st) century, people are developing smartmaterials and smart sensors. Typically, materials employed fortemperature and pressure sensing applications, such as polymers, exhibitboth responses simultaneously, making it difficult to determine whethera change in temperature, pressure or both has occurred. Morespecifically, because temperature and pressure sensors composed ofpolymeric sensing elements respond simultaneously to both pressure andtemperature it is difficult to determine what external environment hasbeen applied to the sensor.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment a sensor is provided that includes a first sensorelement for measuring temperature and a second sensor element formeasuring pressure. Broadly, the sensor includes a substrate, a firstsensor element present on a first portion of the substrate composed of afirst plurality nanostructures having a fixed number of electricaljunctions, wherein changes in resistance or capacitance of theelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is correlated totemperature measurements that are independent of pressure, and a secondsensor element composed of a second plurality of nanostructures in whichthe number of junctions between the second plurality of nanostructuresvaries with changes in pressure that is applied to the second sensorelement wherein resistance or capacitance changes in response to changesin the number of junctions between the second plurality of carbonnanotubes is correlated to a pressure measurement.

In one embodiment, a method of measuring temperature is provided that isindependent of pressure. Broadly, the method may include providing asensor element composed of a plurality of electrically interconnectednanostructures having a fixed number of junctions between each of theelectrically interconnected nanostructures, applying a current throughthe electrically interconnected nanostructures, measuring electricalproperties of the electrically interconnected nanostructures in responseto an application of temperature to the sensor element, and correlatingthe electrical properties of the electrically interconnectednanostructures to temperature.

In one embodiment, a temperature sensor is provided that may be employedin the above described method of measuring temperature. Broadly, thetemperature sensor may include a sensor element including a plurality ofelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes having a fixed number ofjunctions between each of the electrically interconnected nanotubes, atleast one electrical contact to the sensor element in electricalcommunication with the plurality of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes, and a power source in connection with the at least oneelectrical contact providing a substantially constant current to theplurality of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes, whereinresistance or capacitance of the electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes is correlated to temperature.

In another aspect, a temperature sensor is provided in which at leasttwo carbon nanotubes are utilized in a thermocouple arrangement.Broadly, the temperature sensor includes a thermocouple body including afirst carbon nanotube and a second carbon nanotube, the first carbonnanotube and the second carbon nanotubes having a junction at a firstend of the thermocouple body, wherein the first carbon nanotube and thesecond carbon nanotube have dissimilar electrical properties, and avoltmeter in electrical communication with the first carbon nanotube andthe second carbon nanotube, wherein the application of temperature tothe first end of the thermocouple body produces a current in a circuitcomposed of the first carbon nanotube and the second carbon nanotubethat is proportional to a temperature that is applied to the junction atthe first end of the thermocouple body.

In another aspect, a method of measuring pressure is provided. Broadly,the method of measuring pressure includes providing a sensor elementincluding a plurality of nanostructures; applying a current or voltagethrough the plurality of nanostructures; measuring electrical propertiesof the plurality of nanostructures in response to an application ofpressure that increases or decreases a number of junctions in theplurality of nanostructures in the sensor element; and correlating theelectrical properties of the plurality of nanostructures to pressure.

In one embodiment, a pressure sensor is provided that may be employed inthe above-described method. Broadly, the pressure sensor includes asensor element comprised of a plurality of vertically aligned carbonnanotubes fixed to a substrate, at least one electrical contact to thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes carbon nanotubes, and a power sourcein connection with the at least one electrical contact providing asubstantially constant current to the plurality of vertically alignedcarbon nanotubes carbon nanotubes, wherein resistance or capacitance ofthe electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is correlated topressure.

In another embodiment, a pressure sensor is provided that includes aplurality of flexible membranes each including electricallyinterconnected nanostructures, and a power source to the electricallyinterconnected nanostructures, wherein an external force applied to thepressure sensor deforms at least one of the plurality of flexiblemembranes into contact with an adjacent flexible membrane of theplurality of flexible membranes, in which changes in the electricalproperties of the plurality of flexible membranes that results from theexternal force is correlated to a pressure value for the external force.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a sensor that includesa sensor element including a plurality of electrically interconnectednanostructures, a power supply to the plurality of electricallyinterconnected nanostructures, wherein the connectivity of the powersupply to the electrically interconnected nanostructures provides acircuit, and a resonator in electrical communication with the circuit,in which electrical properties to the electrically interconnectednanostructures are varied by application of temperature or pressure tothe pad, wherein changes in the electrical properties result in animpedance change in the circuit that produces a frequency response inthe resonator, wherein the frequency response of the resonator iscorrelated to temperature or pressure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following detailed description, given by way of example and is notintended to limit the invention solely thereto, will best be appreciatedin conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like referencenumerals denote like elements and parts, in which:

FIG. 1 is a photograph depicting a perspective view of one embodiment ofa temperature sensor, in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2 pictorially depicts one embodiment of a network of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes as used in accordance with the presentinvention.

FIG. 3 is a plot depicting the temperature dependent resistivitycharacteristics of at least one embodiment of a network of carbonnanotubes as used in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 4 depicts a side view of a temperature sensor composed of athermocouple body that includes at least two carbon nanotubes, inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 5A and 5B depict side cross-sectional views of one embodiment of apressure sensor composed of a plurality of nanostructures, such ascarbon nanotubes, extending from a polymer containing skin, inaccordance with the present invention.

FIGS. 6A-6C depict side cross-sectional views of one embodiment of apressure sensor composed of a plurality of nanostructures, such ascarbon nanotubes, contained within a polymer skin, in accordance withthe present invention.

FIGS. 7A-7C depict side cross-sectional views of one embodiment of apressure sensor that includes a layered arrangement of nanostructures,such as carbon nanotubes, in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 8 depicts a side cross-sectional view of a sensor includingseparate sensor elements for independent measurements of pressure andtemperature, in accordance with the present invention.

FIGS. 9A, 9B, and 9C are plots depicting the linearity of thetemperature dependent resistivity characteristics of at least onetemperature sensor incorporating a sensor element having carbonnanotubes present therein, as used in accordance with the presentinvention.

FIGS. 10A, 10B, and 10C are plots depicting the effect of pressure onthe temperature sensing abilities of the sensor that provided the dataillustrated in FIGS. 9A-9C.

FIGS. 11A-11B are plots of a change in voltage (delta voltage (V)) as afunction of time that illustrates the pressure sensing performance of apressure sensor composed of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes, as usedin accordance with the present invention.

FIGS. 12A-12C are illustrations of a pressure sensor used to provide theplots depicted in FIGS. 11A-11B, in which the pressure sensor iscomposed of a plurality of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes extendingfrom a first electrode to a second electrode, in accordance with thepresent invention.

FIGS. 13A, 13B, and 13C are plots depicting the effect of temperature onthe pressure sensing abilities of a pressure sensor including verticallyaligned carbon nanotubes, in accordance with the present invention.

FIGS. 14A-14C depict the frequency response of a sensor being subjectedto temperature changes, wherein the sensor includes a sensor elementhaving carbon nanostructures present therein, in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 14D and 14E are plots that illustrate the impedance response of amat of single wall carbon nanotubes to changes in temperature.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the application of carbon nanotubes totemperature and pressure sensors, wherein the nature of theinterconnection of the carbon nanotubes dictates the sensingcharacteristics of the sensor. The electrical properties, e.g.,resistance, of carbon nanotubes have been determined to have a linearresponse to changes in temperature. In one example, by fixing the numberof junctions between adjacent carbon nanotubes, the electrical pathwayby which current travels through a plurality of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes is held constant. By fixing the numberelectrical pathways through the plurality of electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes, the linearity of the electrical property response ofthe carbon nanotubes to variations in temperature may be realized sothat temperature is measured independent of pressure.

In other embodiments of the present invention, the number of junctionsmay be varied in response to pressure. More specifically, when thenumber of junctions between adjacent carbon nanotubes that provide aplurality of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is not fixed,the application of pressure can increase the number of junctions toprovide for an increase in the number of electrical pathways by whichcurrent travels through the electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes. Because, the decrease in resistance that results from theincreased number of electrical pathways is at least one order ofmagnitude greater than the linear response of the electrical propertiesof the carbon nanotubes to temperature, the pressure may be measuredindependent of temperature.

Using the above principles, and by controlling the junction behaviorbetween electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes, sensor elementsmay be provided in which temperature is measured independent of pressureand pressure is measured independent of temperature. Further, sensorscan be provided that include a combination of temperature and pressuresensor elements, in which temperature sensor elements measuretemperature independent of pressure, and pressure sensor elementsmeasure pressure independent of temperature.

Detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein;however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments aremerely illustrative of the invention that may be embodied in various andalternative forms. In addition, each of the examples given in connectionwith the various embodiments of the invention are intended to beillustrative, and not restrictive. Further, the figures are notnecessarily to scale, some features may be exaggerated to show detailsof particular components. Therefore, specific structural and functionaldetails disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, butmerely as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art tovariously employ the present invention.

When describing the inventive structures and methods, the followingterms have the following meanings, unless otherwise indicated.

As used herein a “sensor element” is the portion of a sensor that isexposed to a pressure or temperature to be measured.

As used herein a “nanostructure” is an object having at least onedimension between molecular and microscopic (micrometer-sized)dimension.

“Nanotube” as used herein is meant to denote one form of nanostructurehaving an aspect ratio of length to width greater than 10. The term“nanotube” includes single wall and multi-wall nanotubes unlessspecifically specified as distinct. In one embodiment, a carbon nanotubeis at least one graphene layer wrapped into a cylinder. In oneembodiment, a single wall carbon nanotube is a graphene rolled up into aseamless cylinder with diameter of the order of a nanometer. Amulti-wall carbon nanotube is a plurality of graphene sheets rolled upinto a seamless cylinder with diameter of the order of a nanometer.

“Electrical contact” means the electrically conductive connection fromthe plurality of electrically interconnected nanotubes to the circuitfrom which electrical properties are measured.

“Electrically interconnected” as used in conjunction with nanostructuresmeans an electrically conductive pathway that is composed of at leasttwo nanostructures that are engaged in electrical communication.

“Junction” with respect to nanostructures, e.g., nanotubes, means apoint at which two nanostructures can transfer electrical charge from afirst nanostructure to a second nanostructure in a plurality ofelectrically interconnected nanostructures.

“Electrically conductive”, “electrical communication”, and/or“electrically communicating” as used through the present disclosuremeans a material having a room temperature conductivity of greater than10⁻⁸(Ω−m)⁻¹.

“Linear” as used to describe the response in the electrical propertiesof the sensor element (having electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes therein) to changes in temperature means that a plot of theelectrical properties of the sensor element, e.g., resistance orcurrent, verses the temperature applied to the sensor element has alinear slope.

The term “independent” as used to describe the relationship betweentemperature and pressure in a sensor element that is measuringtemperature means that there is substantially no change in the linearresponse of the electrical properties of the sensing element to changesin temperature by the application of pressure, so long as theapplication of pressure does not change the number of points ofinterconnection between the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubesin the sensor element.

A “matrix” is a medium between nanostructures that may be composed of agas, liquid or solid.

For purposes of the description hereinafter, the terms “upper”, “lower”,“right”, “left, “vertical”, “horizontal”, “top”, “bottom”, “beneath”,“underlying”, “below”, “overlying” and derivatives thereof shall relateto the invention, as it is oriented in the drawing figures.

References in the specification to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment”,“an example embodiment”, etc., indicate that the embodiment describedmay include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, butevery embodiment may not necessarily include the particular feature,structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarilyreferring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature,structure, or characteristic is described in connection with anembodiment, it is submitted that it is within the knowledge of oneskilled in the art to affect such feature, structure, or characteristicin connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitlydescribed.

The present invention embodies the use of nanostructures, e.g., carbonnanotubes, such as nanotube mats, nanotube arrays, and compositesthereof, as temperature and pressure sensors. In some examples,configurations of nanostructures, e.g., carbon nanotubes, such asnanotube mats, exhibit temperature sensing abilities, e.g., resistanceas a function of temperature (resistance vs. temperature), with littleto no pressure dependence, i.e., insensitive to pressure, so thattemperature may be measured and sensed independent of pressure. In otherembodiments, configurations of nanostructures are described that exhibitpressure sensing abilities, e.g., pressure as a function of temperature(pressure vs. temperature), with little to no temperature dependence,i.e., insensitive to temperature, so that pressure may be measured andsensed independent of temperature.

Although the following description is directed to temperature andpressure sensors having sensor elements composed of carbon nanotubes,the present invention is not limited thereto, as other nanostructureshave been contemplated and are within the scope of the presentinvention. For example, the nanostructures that may be utilized in thesensor structures of the present invention include, but are not limitedto: nanoribbons, such as carbon or ZnO nanoribbons; nanorods, such asZnO nanorods doped with F, N, or In₂O₃ nanorods doped with Sn; ornanocylinders, such as single walled nanotubes, double wall nanotubes,few wall nanotubes, or multi-wall nanotubes. In one embodiment, thematerial of the nanostructures could be carbon and/or a metal oxide thatis doped to increase conductivity, for example doped with smallmolecules or metal ions. Additionally, nanowires, nanotubes andnanoparticles have been considered as suitable materials to provide thetemperature and pressure sensors that are disclosed herein.

FIG. 1 is a photograph depicting one embodiment of a temperature sensor100 having at least one sensor element 10 that includes nanostructurespresent therein. The temperature sensor 100 may include a sensor element10 that in one embodiment is provided by a plurality of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes having a fixed number of junctionsbetween each of the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes. In oneembodiment, the plurality of electrically connected carbon nanotubes arefixed to a rigid substrate 5. The temperature sensor 100 may furtherinclude at least one electrical contact 12 to the sensor element 10 inelectrical communication with the plurality of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes. A power source 16 may also be presentthat is in connection with the at least one electrical contact 12 toprovide a substantially constant current to the plurality ofelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes. In one embodiment, inwhich the sensor element 10 is applied to an exterior temperature orpressure, the resistance or capacitance of the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes is correlated to temperature, henceproviding a measurement for the exterior temperature.

In one embodiment, the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes thatare incorporated within the sensor element 10 are comprised of a mat ofsingle or multi-wall carbon nanotubes. In one example, the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes are provided by single wall carbonnanotube mats, as depicted in FIG. 2. In some instances, due to themechanisms of charge conduction in carbon nanotubes 21, and the geometryof their networks, the resistance of nanotube networks display a lineartemperature dependent phenomena. Typically, a single wall carbonnanotube mat is provided in the form of a thin electrically conductivefilm on a substrate 5, that in some instances may be transparent, whichprovides the sensor element 10. As depicted in FIG. 2, single wallcarbon nanotube networks 20 are principally bundles 22 and junctions 23.Each bundle 22 may include a plurality of substantially parallel carbonnanotubes 21. Current flows along the bundle 22 of pseudo metallicsegments, i.e., carbon nanotubes 21, and hops to another bundle 22 atthe junctions 23 between the bundles 22. Current hoping is a fluctuationinduced tunneling between metallic regions, i.e., bundle 22 of carbonnanotubes 21, across thin barriers, i.e., matrix that is present betweenthe bundles 22 of carbon nanotubes 21 at the junctions 23.

It has been determined that the electrical resistivity of circuitsformed using the above described carbon nanotube networks varies withchanges in temperature. More specifically, in one embodiment, when achange in temperature is applied to a circuit that has been formed usinga network of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes a change inthe resistivity of that circuit may be measure. For example, an orientedfilm of multiwall nanotubes may have a resistivity that is measuredalong the longest axis of the carbon nanotube of approximately 20 mΩ*cmor less at a temperature of 300K, which has been measured to increasegradually in a linear manner with increasing temperature. By linear itis meant that when the resistivity is plotted as a function oftemperature the slope of the line will be substantially equal toy=m(x)+b.

In one embodiment, the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes havea temperature dependent resistivity that is defined by:

ρ(T)=αT+ρ _(t) exp(T _(t)/(T+T _(s)))

wherein ρ is the resistance in ohms/cm², T is the temperature, α andρ_(t) are temperature independent constants which incorporate geometricfactors of the sample, T_(t) is the temperature corresponding to thermalvoltage fluctuations which increase energy of electronic states abovethe activation energy, and T_(t)/T_(s) is the ratio defining thetunneling in the absence of thermal fluctuations. The expression αTrepresents the metallic conductivity, i.e., the conductivity of thecarbon nanotubes 21, and the expression ρ_(t) exp(T_(t)/(T+T_(s)))represents the barrier hoping conductivity that is measured at thenanotube bundle junctions 23 or nanotube defects.

Using the above temperature dependent resistivity characteristics of theelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes, a temperature sensor 100may be provided in which a current is passed through a circuitcontaining the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes, whereinchanges in the resistivity that are measured from the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes can be correlated to temperature. FIG. 3depicts a plot indicated by reference number 4 of one embodiment of thelinearity that may be provided by a temperature sensor including asensor element 10 composed of a plurality of electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes. The linearity of the relationship between resistanceand temperature is maintained so long as the temperature does not affectthe interconnectivity of the carbon nanotubes. For example, when theinterconnectivity of the carbon nanotubes is dictated by a supportingmaterial, such as a rigid substrate 5, the linearity of the relationshipbetween resistance and temperature is maintained so long as thetemperature does not degrade the structural integrity of the supportingmaterial. In one embodiment, the linearity of the relationship betweenresistivity and temperature of the sensor element 10 of the temperaturesensor 100 is maintained at temperatures as great as about 550° K. Inone embodiment, the linearity of the relationship between resistivityand temperature of the sensor element 10 of the temperature sensor 100is maintained at temperatures ranging from about 0° K to about 500° K,typically ranging from about 150° K to about 300° K.

One feature of carbon nanotube that contributes to the linear electricalproperty response to the application of temperature is that carbonnanotubes have a zero thermal expansion coefficient. Therefore, becausethe application of temperature does not result in a dimensional changeof the carbon nanotubes, the junctions between the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes are not affected by temperaturevariations.

In one aspect of the invention, due to the fixed number of junctions 23between the plurality of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes 21in the sensor element 10, the temperature response that may be measuredthrough electrical resistivity is independent of pressure. Morespecifically, because the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes21 have a fixed number of junctions 23, the electrically conductivepathways though the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes 21 arenot varied by changes in pressure. In embodiments of the invention inwhich the number of junctions 23 are not fixed, pressure changes canvary the number of junctions 23, which in turn changes the number ofelectrical pathways through the plurality of electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes 21, hence changing the resistivity of the plurality ofelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes 21. Therefore, fixing thenumber of junctions 23 in the plurality of electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes 21 eliminates or at least minimizes the changes inelectrical properties that typically result from pressure changesapplied to the sensor element 10. Because the number of junctions 23 ofthe electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes 21 are fixed, thelinear electrical property response of the plurality of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes 21 to temperature can be measuredwithout variation that results from the application of pressure, henceproviding a sensor element 10 for measuring temperature that isinsensitive to pressure. The thickness of the sensor element 10 ofelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is another factor that maycontribute to the pressure independence of the temperature reading byproviding a substantially fixed array of electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes. For example, a single layer of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes on a substrate would be less susceptibleto variations in electrical properties that result from pressureapplications than multiple layers of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes to the application of pressure, because a sensor elementhaving a single layer of carbon nanotubes would eliminate thepossibility of junctions formed by compressing the carbon nanotubes ofthe multiple layers into electrical contact in a manner that wouldincrease the number of junctions between the carbon nanotubes. In oneembodiment, the fixed nature of the bundles of carbon nanotubes may beaided by the introduction of a rigid matrix, such as a polymer having ashear modulus of 0.01 GPa at 300° K or greater, wherein in some examplesthe matrix material may have a shear modulus of 0.1 GPa at 300° K orgreater.

The application of pressure to the sensor element 10 of a pressureindependent temperature sensor 100 may result in a change in the valueof the resistance for the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes21 that is no greater than variations in the resistance that occurs fromexperimental error, i.e., measurement error. Measurement error for theresistance may result from contact resistance within the measurementdevice or contact resistance from the measurement device to the sensorelement 10. Variations from measurement error for the resistance of thesensor element 10 may be about 15.0% or less of the resistance beingmeasured, more typically being less than 10.0%, and in some instances aslow as 5.0% or less. Therefore, the application of pressure to thesensor element 10 of a pressure independent temperature sensor 100 mayresult in a change in the value of the resistance for the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes 21 that is not greater than 10%. In aneven further embodiment, the electrical properties of the sensingelement that are correlated to a temperature value are not varied by avalue greater than 5% by the application of a pressure. In yet anotherembodiment, the electrical properties of the sensing element that arecorrelated to a temperature value are not varied by a value greater than0.5% by the application of a pressure.

In one embodiment, the thickness of the sensor element 10 may be greaterthan 20 nm. In one example, the thickness of the sensor element 10 ofthe electrically interconnected nanotubes 21 is no greater than 100 nm.In another embodiment, the thickness of the sensing element 10 thatincludes the pad 11 of the electrically connected nanotubes 21 rangesfrom about 20 nm to about 50 nm. In an even further embodiment, thethickness of the sensing element 10 of the electrically connectednanotubes 21 is less than 20 nm.

The carbon nanotubes 21 that provide the sensing element 10 typicallyhave a high purity, i.e., have a low incidence of impurities. In oneembodiment, the carbon nanotubes may have a high purity on the order ofabout 95% to about 99% carbon. In an even further embodiment, the carbonnanotubes have a high purity on the order of about 99% or greater.

The electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes having a fixed numberof junctions may be provided by mat of carbon nanotubes, such as a matof single wall carbon nanotubes. In one embodiment, a mat of single wallcarbon nanotubes may be provided by laser vaporization. In oneembodiment, the single wall carbon nanotubes are formed using laservaporization in combination with a catalyst, such as a metal catalyst.In one embodiment, the catalyst is supported on a substrate, such as agraphite substrate, or the catalyst may be floating metal catalystparticles. In one embodiment, the metal catalyst may be composed of Fe,Ni, Co, Rh, Y or alloys and combinations thereof.

In one embodiment, laser vaporization includes a laser beam thatimpinges on a carbon (also referred to as graphite) target, such as avolume of a carbon containing feedstock gas, e.g., methane or carbonmonoxide. In one embodiment, the laser used to vaporize the carbontarget is a pulsed laser or is a continuous laser, wherein the carbontarget is present in an oven at a temperature on the order of about1200° C. In one embodiment, a pulsed laser has a light intensity on theorder of about 100 kW/cm², wherein a continuous laser has a lightintensity on the order of about 12 kW/cm². In one embodiment, the ovenis filled with helium or argon gas in order to keep the pressure at 500Torr.

In one embodiment, vapor plumes form, expand and cool. As the vaporizedspecies cools, carbon molecules and atoms quickly condense to formlarger clusters, which may include fullerenes. In one embodiment, thecatalysts also begin to condense and attach to carbon clusters andprevent their closing into cage structures. Catalysts may open cagestructures when they attach to them. In one embodiment, from theseinitial clusters, tubular molecules grow into single-wall carbonnanotubes until the catalyst particles become too large, or untilconditions have cooled sufficiently that carbon no longer can diffusethrough or over the surface of the catalyst particles. In oneembodiment, the single-wall carbon nanotubes formed in this case arebundled together by van der waals forces to provide the network similarto that depicted in FIG. 2.

The diameter of a single wall nanotube, as used in accordance with thepresent invention, typically ranges from about 1 nanometer to about 50nanometers. In another embodiment, the diameter of a single wallnanotube ranges from about 1.2 nanometers to about 1.6 nanometers. Inone embodiment the length of a single wall nanotube, as used inaccordance with the present invention ranges from about 50 nanometers toabout 10 microns. In another embodiment, the length of a single wallnanotube ranges from about 10 microns to about 20 millimeters. In oneembodiment, the nanotubes used in accordance with the present inventionhave an aspect ratio of length to diameter on the order of approximately200:1.

The carbon nanotubes produced by laser vaporization are typically formedin bundles. A bundle is a plurality of interconnected carbon nanotubes.In one example, a bundle of nanotubes contains on the order of 10,000nanotubes or less. In another example, a bundle of nanotubes typicallyincludes on the order of approximately 50 to approximately 5000nanotubes. In one embodiment, a bundle of nanotubes has a diameter onthe order of about 0.9 nm or greater.

The nanotubes comprise a majority of carbon typically being of highpurity. In other examples, the nanotubes include a carbon contentranging from being greater than 50%, wherein a purification process isutilized to provide carbon nanotubes having of high purity, such asgreater than 90% carbon. In one embodiment, the carbon nanotubes may bepurified by a process that includes an acid treatment followed by anoxidation. In one embodiment, the acid treatment may include treatmentand oxidation steps are provided by a dilute HNO₃ reflux/air oxidationprocedure.

In a following process step, the carbon nanotubes may be doped to adjustthe conductivity of the carbon nanotubes. In one embodiment, n-type andp-type doping of carbon nanotubes is desirable to tune the conductivityof the carbon nanotubes for sensor applications. P-type denotes that thenanotube includes an excess of holes, i.e., positive charge carriers,wherein the nanotube may be doped with dopants to provide the excess ofholes. N-type denotes that the nanotube includes an excess of electrons,i.e., negative charge carriers, wherein the nanotube may be doped withdopants to provide an excess of electrons.

In one embodiment, the carbon nanotubes become p-type following growthonce exposed to the ambient air, wherein oxygen molecules are absorbedonto the carbon nanotube surface and through surface interactions alterthe nanotube's electrical state rendering the nanotubes p-typeconductivity. In another embodiment, exposure of the nanotube topotassium atoms may result in absorption of the potassium to the carbonnanotube, which dopes that region of the nanotube n-type. In a furtherembodiment, exposure of the carbon nanotube to fluorinated carboxylicacids and sulfonic acids produces a p-type conductivity carbon nanotube.

The nanotubes may be doped during production; purification processing,and/or post-processing. In one embodiment, the nanotubes may be dopedduring synthesis or by post processing through the use of gases,liquids, or solids, such as polymers, such as the polymers used in thepolymer matrix. For example, post-growth doping nanotubes may beaccomplished via deposition of dopant from vapor, liquid of solid phasein controlled atmosphere, vacuum or air. In one embodiment, depositionof dopants from vapor includes vapor gas absorption onto the carbonnanotubes. In one embodiment, deposition of dopants from liquid includesliquid dipping followed by a post treatment that may include heatingand/or cooling. Examples of dopants may include, but at not limited to:nitric acid, thionyl chloride (SOCl₂), triethylamine (Et₃N), pyridine(C₆H₅N), orthodichlorobenzene or combinations thereof.

Although the above description is related to bundles of single ormulti-wall carbon nanotubes, embodiments have been contemplated in whichvertically aligned carbon nanotubes have been utilized in temperaturesensors, so long as the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes are fixed ina rigid matrix so that the number of junctions that provide theelectrical pathway though the sensor element 10 may be fixed.

Referring to FIG. 1, the sensor element 10 that is provided by theplurality of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is typicallyfixed to a rigid substrate 5. Rigid as used to describe the substrate 5to which the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is fixed meansthat the substrate 5 has a shear modulus of 0.01 GPa at 300° K orgreater. In one embodiment, the substrate 5 has a shear modulus rangingfrom 0.01 GPa to 478 GPa. In an even further embodiment, the substrate 5has a shear modulus ranging from 1 GPa to 100 GPa. The rigid substrate 5is typically composed of a glass, plastic, metal, or semiconductormaterial.

In one embodiment, the plurality of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes may be positioned on the substrate 5 using a variety ofdeposition techniques that may include, but are not limited to:filtration of nanotubes from solutions onto filter paper and transferalto the substrate 5, spray deposition of solvated or suspended nanotubes,inkjetting, electrophoretic deposition onto substrates, electrospinningor a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the plurality of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes may be disposed within a matrix that may include, but is notlimited to: insulating or conductive polymers, ceramics, metal powdersand combinations thereof. The matrix may be employed to enhance orrestrict conduction between the nanotubes themselves in theinterconnected network. In one embodiment, the matrix may be composed ofa polymer selected from the group including: but not limited to:poly(phenylene vinylene), polythiophenes, polypyridines, poly(pyridylvinylenes), polyphenylenes and copolymers of these materials. In oneembodiment, the polymer of the matrix may be a conjugated polymer.Conjugated polymers have a framework of alternating single and doublecarbon-carbon and/or carbon-nitrogen bonds or carbon-sulfur bonds.Single bonds are referred to as σ-bonds, and double bonds contain aσ-bond and a π-bond. Conjugated polymers have a σ-bond backbone ofoverlapping sp² hybrid orbitals. The remaining out-of-plane p_(z)),orbitals on the carbon (or nitrogen) atoms overlap with neighboringp_(z) orbitals to give π-bonds. When the sensor element 10 that iscomposed of the plurality of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes further includes a polymer matrix, the nanotubes may bedeposited atop the substrate 5 using spray deposition followed by spraydeposition of the polymer matrix.

Still referring to FIG. 1, the at least one electrical contact 12 to theplurality of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is typicallycomposed of a metal, such as a metal foil, that provides for electricalcommunication between the power source 16, e.g., a battery, and theelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes. In one embodiment, themetal that provides the electrical contact 12 may be gold, copper,aluminum, silver, platinum and alloys thereof. In one example, theelectrical contact 12 is provided by evaporating gold to a thickness ofapproximately 1000 Å onto a portion of the electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes, wherein copper wires may be subsequently attached tothe electrical contact 12 using silver epoxy. It is noted that thematerial of the electrical contact 12 should not be limited solely tometal, as any electrically conductive material is suitable.

The power source to the sensor element 10 including the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes can be an AC or DC power supply. In theembodiments of the invention in which the power source is a DC powersupply, measurements of the resistance of the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes are correlated to the temperature. Inthe embodiments of the invention in which the power source comprises anAC power supply, the capacitance of the electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes is measured and correlated to temperature. The powersupply typically provides a constant value to provide a current throughthe electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes from which the voltagecan be measured and in turn the resistance then determined.

In one embodiment, the above temperature sensor 100 is utilized in amethod of measuring temperature that includes providing a sensor element10 composed of a plurality of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes 21 having a fixed number of junctions 23 between each of theelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes 21, applying a currentthrough the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes 21, measuringelectrical properties of the electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes 21 in response to an application of temperature to the sensorelement 10, and correlating the electrical properties of theelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes 21 to temperature. Theelectrical properties of the electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes 21 may be resistance or capacitance. The correlation ofresistance or capacitance to temperature may be conducted using acomputer.

In another aspect of the invention, carbon nanotubes may be configuredto provide a temperature sensor having a thermocouple type arrangement.More specifically, in one embodiment, two dissimilar carbon nanotubes200 a, 200 b are positioned to have at least one junction 210, asdepicted by FIG. 4. In one embodiment, the temperature sensor includes athermocouple body having a first carbon nanotube 200 a and a secondcarbon nanotube 200 b, wherein the first carbon nanotube 200 a and thesecond carbon nanotube 200 b interconnect at a junction 210 that ispresent at a first end of the thermocouple body, which is to be appliedto the temperature to be measured. The first carbon nanotube 200 a andthe second carbon nanotube 200 have dissimilar electrical properties. Avoltmeter 230 may be provided in electrical communication with the firstcarbon nanotube 200 a and the second carbon nanotube 200 b, wherein theapplication of temperature to the first end of the thermocouple bodyproduces a current in a circuit composed of the first carbon nanotube200 a and the second carbon nanotube 200 b that is proportional to thetemperature.

An electric current flows in a closed circuit 300 of the two dissimilarcarbon nanotubes 200 a, 200 b (hereafter referred to as a nanotubethermocouple circuit) when the junction 210 between the interconnectedfirst carbon nanotube 200 a and the second carbon nanotube 200 b at thefirst end of the thermocouple body is subjected to a temperature change.In the nanotube thermocouple circuit, the current continues to flow aslong as the junction 210 of the two dissimilar carbon nanotubes 200 a,200 b is at a different temperature than the remaining portion of thefirst and second carbon nanotubes 200 a, 200 b. The magnitude anddirection of the current depends on the temperature difference betweenthe junction 210 and the remaining portion of the first and secondcarbon nanotubes 200 a, 200 b, and the properties of the first andsecond carbon nanotubes 200 a, 200 b. This effect is similar to theSeebeck effect that is utilized in temperature sensing using metal basedthermocouples.

Any two dissimilar carbon nanotubes 200 a, 200 b can be used and thenanotube thermocouple circuit will generate a low voltage output that isproportional to the temperature difference between the junction 210 andthe remaining portion of the first and second carbon nanotubes 200 a,200 b. The term “dissimilar” as used to describe the carbon nanotubesutilized to provide the thermocouple type arrangement means that theelectrical properties of the carbon nanotubes 200 a, 200 b in responseto temperature change are not the same. In one embodiment, increasing ordecreasing the number of defects that are present in the carbonnanotubes varies the electrical properties of the carbon nanotube sothat a first carbon nanotube 200 a is dissimilar from the second carbonnanotube 200 b. Reducing the number of defects increases theconductivity of the carbon nanotubes. Therefore, the carbon nanotubehaving the reduced number of defects will have a lower resistance thanthe carbon nanotube having the greater number of defects. A carbonnanotube having a lesser degree of defects will have a lower resistance,and therefore be dissimilar than carbon nanotube having a greater degreeof defects.

The number of defects that are present in a carbon nanotube may bedecreased though an annealing process. Examples of annealing processesthat can reduce the defects in the carbon nanotubes include annealingwith pure methanol at 100° C. for a time period of approximately fourhours; annealing at 1250° C. for four hours; and annealing at 2800° C.for four hours. Dissimilar carbon nanotubes may also be provided bydifferent dopant types and concentrations within the carbon nanotubesand/or by different heat treatments of the carbon nanotubes.

For example, in one embodiment, dissimilar carbon nanotubes may beproduced by varying the degree of oxygen adsorption that is present onthe surface of the carbon nanotubes. For example, the concentration ofoxygen that is adsorbed on the surface of the first carbon nanotube 200a may be reduced relative to the second carbon nanotube 200 b byannealing the first carbon nanotube 200 a in an argon containingatmosphere, wherein the anneal temperature may range from 100° C. to1250° C.

One example of carbon nanotubes that are suitable for the first carbonnanotube 200 a of the thermocouple body include carbon nanotubes dopedwith orthodichlorobenzene (ODCB). One example of carbon nanotubes thatare suitable for the second carbon nanotube 200 b of the thermocouplebody include carbon nanotubes doped with thionyl chloride (or thionyldichloride, SOCl₂).

The junction 210 may be provided by physical contact between the firstcarbon nanotube 200 a and the second carbon nanotube 200 b. In oneexample, the junction 210 may further comprises a conductive weldmentbetween the first carbon nanotube 200 a and the second carbon nanotube200 b that is provided by electron beam or laser welding.

Electrical contacts 12 to each of the first and second carbon nanotubes200 a, 200 b are present opposite the junction 210. The electricalcontacts 12 to the first and second carbon nanotubes 200 a, 200 b of thethermocouple body are similar in function and composition as theelectrical contacts 12 that are described above with reference to FIGS.1-3.

A conventional voltmeter 230 may be electrically connected to theelectrical contacts 12 to provide a circuit. Using the above describednanotube thermocouple circuit, temperatures ranging from about −200° C.to about +1200° C. may be measured with voltage increments correspondingto temperature changes on the order of about 41 μV/° C. In oneembodiment, thermoelectric power generated by the carbon nanotubes 200a, 200 b that provide the temperature sensor having the thermocouplearrangement may be used a power source.

FIGS. 5A-6C depict embodiments of a pressure sensor 110 a, 110 b,composed of a plurality of nanostructures, such as vertically alignedcarbon nanotubes 15. In one example, the pressure sensor 110 includes aflexible sensor element 28 composed of a plurality of vertically alignedcarbon nanotubes 15, at least one electrical contact 12 to thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15, and a power source (not shown)in connection with the at least one electrical contact 12 that providesa substantially constant current to the plurality of vertically alignedcarbon nanotubes 15, wherein the resistance or the capacitance of theplurality of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 is correlated topressure.

In one embodiment, pressure sensitivity of the pressure sensor 110 a isprovided by flexibility of the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15that are arranged in parallel and extend from a substantially rigidsubstrate 5, as depicted in FIG. 5A. In this configuration, thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 of the pressure sensor 110 aresemble hairs in their sensitivity to pressure changes. The deformationof the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 changes the resistivity ofthe carbon nanotube array significantly. For example, referring to FIG.5B, deformation of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 may result incontact between the adjacent vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15,i.e., increased junctions between the adjacent vertically aligned carbonnanotubes 15, wherein contact between the adjacent vertically alignedcarbon nanotubes 15 decreases the electrical resistance of the nanotubearray. Deforming the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 providescontact between adjacent nanotubes 36, which increases the number ofelectrically conductive paths between the electrodes 12, hence providingfor lower resistance of the nanotube array. The pressure sensor 110 adepicted in FIGS. 5A-5B is capable of measuring pressures less than theminimum pressure that can be sensed by human fingers, which is on theorder of approximately 20 g/cm². For example, the pressure sensor 110 adepicted in FIGS. 5A-5B may measure pressure values as low as 5 g/cm².

In one embodiment, the pressure sensor 110 a may measure pressure valuesranging from about 5 g/cm² to about 4000 g/cm². In another embodiment,the pressure sensor 110 a may measure pressure values ranging from about10 g/cm² to about 1000 g/cm². In a further embodiment, the pressuresensor 110 a may measure pressure values ranging from about 50 g/cm² toabout 550 g/cm². In an even further embodiment, the pressure sensor 110a may measure pressure values ranging from about 100 g/cm² to about 150g/cm². It is noted that the above described ranges are provided forillustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the inventionspecifically thereto. For example, the pressure sensor 110 a can measureany pressure, so long as the pressure does not diminish the structuralintegrity of the pressure sensor. By diminishing the structuralintegrity of the pressure sensor 110 a it is meant that the pressurewould sever the electrical connection of the vertically aligned carbonnanotubes 15 from the substrate 5.

Typically, the substrate 5 depicted in the embodiments of the inventionthat are consistent with FIGS. 5A and 5B is a rigid substrate, such as apolymeric substrate having a shear modulus greater than about 1.0 GPa.In another example, in which the substrate 5 is composed of a metal, theshear modulus of the substrate 5 is typically greater than 5.0 GPa. Inyet another example, in which the substrate 5 is composed of a ceramic,the shear modulus is greater than about 20.0 GPa.

It is noted that the above described dimensions and pressures areprovided for illustrative purposes only, since the range of pressuresbeing measured by the structures described above may be modified byincreasing or decreasing the dimensions separating the adjacentnanotubes 36 of the array of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15.

Referring to FIGS. 6A-6C, in another embodiment, pressure sensitivity ofthe pressure sensor 110 b is provided by flexibility of the verticallyaligned carbon nanotubes 15 that are contained within a flexiblesubstrate 29. The flexible substrate 29 typically is composed of athermoplastic polymer having a shear modulus of 1.0 GPa or less, but insome instances the flexible substrate 29 may be a thermoset polymerhaving a shear modulus on the order of approximately 1.5 GPa. Examplesof polymers suitable for the flexible substrate 29 include parylene C,polyamide, polyimide, polybutadiene elastomer, polycarbonate,polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene, polyurethane elastomer, andpolyvinyl chloride.

Typically, the flexible substrate 29 has a shear modulus of less thanabout 1.5 GPa, typically ranging from about 1.0 GPa to about 0.5 GPa,and in some instances being as low as about 0.0005 GPa. FIG. 6A depictsa plurality of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 that are presentbetween a first skin 30 (also referred to as first surface) and a secondskin 35 (also referred to as a second surface), prior to the applicationof an external pressure.

FIG. 6B depicts the application of a first pressure P1, e.g., moderatepressure, to the first skin 30 results in deformation of verticallyaligned carbon nanotubes 15. In some embodiments, deformation of thefirst skin 30 and the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 containedwithin the flexible substrate 29 that results in contact between theadjacent vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15, wherein contact betweenthe adjacent vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 decreases theelectrical resistance of the nanotube array. In one embodiment, bydeforming the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 in a manner thatprovides contact between adjacent nanotubes, i.e., increases thejunctions between the carbon nanotubes, the number of electricallyconductive paths between the electrodes 12 is increased, hence providingfor lower resistance of the nanotube array. Typically, the pressureapplied to the pressure sensor 110 b depicted in FIG. 6B may range fromabout 5 g/cm² to about 1000 g/cm², more typically ranging from about 10g/cm² to about 150 g/cm², and even more typically ranging from about 50g/cm² to about 100 g/cm².

FIG. 6C depicts the application of a second pressure P2, e.g., highpressure, that is greater than the pressure that is applied to thesensor 110 b depicted in FIG. 6B. Typically, the increased pressureapplied to the first skin 30 further deforms the first skin 30, thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 within the flexible substrate 29and the second skin 35, wherein the increased deformation of thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 further increases the contactbetween adjacent nanotubes, which in turn increases the number ofelectrically conductive paths between the electrodes 12, hence providingfor lower resistance of the nanotube array. Typically, the pressureapplied to the pressure sensor 110 b depicted in FIG. 6C may range fromabout 150 g/cm² to about 4,000 g/cm², more typically ranging from about150 g/cm² to about 1,000 g/cm², and even more typically ranging fromabout 550 g/cm² to about 1000 g/cm².

It is noted that the above described dimensions and pressures areprovided for illustrative purposes only, since the range of pressuresbeing measured by the structures described above may be modified byincreasing or decreasing the dimensions separating the adjacentnanotubes of the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 and/or byincreasing or decreasing the shears modulus of the first skin 30 and/orsecond skin 35.

In one embodiment, the vertically-aligned nanotube arrays (VANTAs) thatare utilized in the pressure sensors 100 a, 100 b that are depicted inFIGS. 5A-6C can be synthesized by thermal chemical vapor deposition ofhydrocarbon feedstocks onto substrates that are patterned with metalcatalyst films. Broadly, in one embodiment, thermal chemical vapordeposition synthesis is achieved by providing a carbon source in a gasphase and using an energy source, such as plasma or resistively heatedcoil, to transfer energy to a gaseous carbon molecule. Examples ofchemical vapor deposition processes suitable for forming carbonnanotubes include, but are not limited to: plasma enhanced chemicalvapor deposition (PECVD), thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD), vaporphase growth, aero gel supported chemical vapor (CVD) and laser assistedchemical vapor deposition (CVD).

The patterned metal catalyst films are composed of a single layer ormultilayers of thin metal films that are deposited by electron beamevaporation, sputtering, or chemical vapor deposition. In oneembodiment, the metal catalyst film may include a transition metalincluding but not limited to Ni, Fe, or Co. In one embodiment, followingdeposition the metal catalyst film is patterned using photolithographyand etch processes. The metal catalyst film may be patterned to providedots patterns, pillars, stripes, and/or functional structures, such assensor structures.

In one embodiment, the patterned metal catalyst film includes a bufferlayer, e.g., Al, which is in contact with the substrate, and a metalcatalyst, e.g., 0.2-1.0 nm of Fe formed atop the buffer layer. In oneembodiment, the patterned metal catalyst film includes another metallayer, such as 0.2 nm of Mo.

The substrate including the pattered metal catalyst film is then placedinside a tube furnace and the temperature is raised under hydrogen andargon gas flow at various partial pressures. In one embodiment,hydrocarbon feedstocks may include other gases, such as acetylene withhydrogen and argon, or ethanol with hydrogen and argon, or methanol withhydrogen and argon, are passed over the patterned metal catalyst in athermal chemical vapor deposition process, wherein carbon nanotubes growfrom the patterned metal catalyst film. Following chemical vapordeposition, the method of forming vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes 15may further include infiltration of the arrays with a polymer solution,followed by exfoliation of the film containing the vertically-alignedcarbon nanotubes 15 by dissolution, peeling, and then physicalexfoliation. In one embodiment, the carbon nanotubes produced in formingthe vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes 15 may or may not be single wallcarbon nanotubes (SWNTs).

In one embodiment, the vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes 15 may beinfiltrated with polymer to maintain their alignment prior to theapplication of external pressure. Contrary to a network of carbonnanotubes, in which adjacent nanotubes are in electrical communicationto provide a conductive path through the polymer matrix, adjacentvertically-aligned carbon nanotubes are parallel to one another. In oneembodiment of the present invention, vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes15 may be grown up to several millimeters in height or grown withlimited heights of only one hundred nanometers with an accuracy of about20 nm.

Referring to FIG. 5A-6C, the at least one electrical contact 12 to thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 is typically composed of a metal,such as a metal foil, that provides for electrical communication betweenthe power source (not shown), e.g., battery, and the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes. In one embodiment, the metal thatprovides the electrical contact may be copper, aluminum, silver,platinum, and alloys thereof. It is noted that the material of theelectrical contact 12 should not be limited solely to metal, as anyelectrically conductive material is suitable.

In one embodiment, the power source to vertically aligned carbonnanotubes 15 is an AC or DC power supply. In the embodiments of theinvention in which the power source is a DC power supply, measurementsof the resistance of the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubesare correlated to the temperature. In the embodiments of the inventionin which the power source comprises an AC power supply, the impedance ofthe electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is measured andcorrelated to temperature. The power supply typically provides aconstant value to provide a current through the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes from which the voltage can be measuredand in turn the resistance then determined. The correlation ofresistance or impedance to temperature may be calibrated and calibrationcoefficients may used to correlate measured values to temperature.

FIGS. 7A-7C depict another embodiment of a pressure sensor 110 c, inwhich pressure sensitivity of the sensor is provided by a plurality offlexible membranes positioned in a layered arrangement, wherein eachflexible membrane is composed of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes that are present on or within a flexible matrix. In oneembodiment, the first plurality 41 of flexible membranes and the secondplurality 42 of flexible membranes are encased in a flexible substrate29, i.e., flexible matrix. In one embodiment, each of the flexiblemembranes including the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes hasa shear modulus of less than about 5.0 GPa, typically ranging from about1.0 GPa to about 5.0 GPa, and in some instances being less than 1.0 GPa.

FIG. 7A depicts one embodiment of a pressure sensor 110 c including alower pressure sensor 50 composed of a first plurality 41 of flexiblemembranes and a high pressure sensor 55 composed of a second plurality42 of flexible membranes, in which each flexible membrane includeselectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes present therein. In oneembodiment, the lower pressure sensor 50 is suitable for detectingpressures less than 50 g/cm², and the high pressure sensor 55 issuitable for detecting pressures of about 100 g/cm² or greater. In oneembodiment, the electrically interconnected nanotubes that are presentin the flexible membranes are single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT).

FIG. 7B depicts the application of a first pressure P₁, e.g., moderatepressure, to the first flexible membrane 38 of the first plurality 41 offlexible membranes that results in deformation of the first flexiblemembrane 38 into electrical contact with the second flexible membrane 39of the first plurality 41 of flexible membranes. In one embodiment, thefirst flexible membrane 38 is separated from the second flexiblemembrane 39 by distance ranging from about 5 nm to about 100 nm prior tothe application of the pressure. Although the first pressure P₁ produceselectrical connectivity between the flexible membranes of the lowpressure sensor 50, it is noted that the first pressure P₁ does notsubstantially deform the flexible membranes of the high pressure sensor55. In some embodiments, contact between the adjacent first flexiblemembrane 38 and the second flexible membrane 39 decreases the electricalresistance of the circuit containing the first and second flexiblemembranes 38, 39 of the lower pressure sensor 50.

FIG. 7C depicts the application of a second pressure P₂, e.g., highpressure, to the first flexible membrane 38 of the first plurality 41 offlexible membranes that results in deformation of the first flexiblemembrane 43 into electrical contact with the second flexible membrane 44of the second plurality 42 of the flexible membranes. In one embodiment,the first flexible membrane 43 is separated from the second flexiblemembrane 44 of the second plurality 42 of the flexible membranes bydistance ranging from about 5 nm to about 100 nm.

It is noted that the above described dimensions and pressures areprovided for illustrative purposes only, since the range of pressuresbeing measured by the structures described above may be modified byincreasing or decreasing the dimensions between the flexible membranesand by increasing or decreasing the shear modulus of the flexiblemembranes.

Referring to the pressure sensor 110 c depicted in FIGS. 7A-7C, in oneembodiment the flexible membranes are composed of electricallyinterconnected single wall nanotubes that are deposited on a flexiblesubstrate. In one example, the carbon nanotubes can be electrospun orextruded. The production of the carbon nanotubes may be produced usingthe methods described above with reference to FIGS. 1-3. In one example,spray deposition of a mat of electrically interconnected nanotubes isfollowed by the spray deposition of a matrix or skin of a flexiblematerial, such as a polymer, wherein the sequence of spray depositedmaterials provides the layered structure that is depicted in FIGS.7A-7C. The pressure sensor depicted in FIG. 7A-7C may have electricalcontacts 12 and power supplied similar to those described in referenceto FIGS. 5A-6C.

In each of the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 5A-7C, the pressure sensormay measure pressure independent of temperature. The term “independent”as used to describe the relationship between temperature and pressure ina sensor element that is measuring pressure means that the electricalproperties of the sensing element that are correlated to a pressurevalue are not varied by a value greater than 15% by the application of atemperature. In one embodiment, the electrical properties of the sensingelement that are correlated to a pressure value are not varied by avalue greater than 10% by the application of a temperature. In an evenfurther embodiment, the electrical properties of the sensing elementthat are correlated to a pressure value are not varied by a valuegreater than 5% by the application of a temperature. In yet anotherembodiment, the electrical properties of the sensing element that arecorrelated to a pressure value are not varied by a value greater than0.5% by the application of a temperature.

FIG. 8 depicts a sensor 100 d including separate sensor elements 20 a,20 b, i.e., separate pressure sensor elements 20 a and temperaturesensor elements 20 b, for independent measurements of pressure andtemperature. In one embodiment, the pressure sensor element 20 a mayinclude a vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 as described above withreference to FIGS. 5A-7C, and illustrated in FIGS. 12A-12C. In oneembodiment, the temperature sensor element 20 b includes a pad ofelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes, as described above withreference to FIGS. 1-3.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a sensor that includesa sensor element composed of a plurality of electrically interconnectednanostructures, a power supply to the plurality of electricallyinterconnected nanostructures, wherein the connectivity of the powersupply to the electrically interconnected nanostructures provides acircuit, a resonator in electrical communication with the circuit, inwhich resistance to the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes isvaried by application of temperature or pressure to the pad, the changesin the resistance resulting in a reactive impedance of the circuitproduces changes in a frequency response of the resonator, and aconverter that correlates the changes in the frequency response of theresonator to temperature or pressure. A resonator is a device thatexhibits resonance or resonant behavior, that is, it naturallyoscillates at some frequencies, called its resonance frequencies withgreater amplitude than others.

In one embodiment, the sensors of the present invention allow forsimultaneous readings of pressure and temperatures while providing forwireless engagement to systems to which the pressure and temperaturereadings are transmitted. More specifically, in one example, becausecompression of the nanotubes in the array vertically aligned carbonnanotubes or mats of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubeschanges their reactive capacitance and/or DC resistance, a patterned matof electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes, or patterned network ofvertically aligned carbon nanotubes, that forms an RF antennae may alsofunction as the sensor element of a temperature and/or pressure sensor.For example, when the resistance of the film or coil that provides an RFantennae, which is produced by patterning an array of vertically alignedcarbon nanotubes or patterning a mat of electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes, the frequency response of the RF resonator will changeand can be remotely detectable.

The embodiments of the present invention provide specific sensing ofpressure independent of temperature and specific sensing of temperatureindependent of pressure. The sensors described herein display a broadrange of sensing and a high degree of linearity.

The following examples are provided to further illustrate aspects of thepresent invention and demonstrate some advantages that arise therefrom.It is not intended that the invention be limited to the specificexamples disclosed.

Example 1 Linear Temperature Dependent Resistivity

Single wall carbon nanotubes were synthesized by laser vaporization andpurified by dilute HNO₃ reflux/air oxidation procedure. A conjugatedpolymer poly(2-methoxy-5-(2′-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene)(MEHPPV) was provided having a molecular weight of 51,000 and apolydispersity of 1.1 for the matrix in which the single wall nanotubeswere fixed to provide a pad of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes. The polymer matrix and the single wall carbon nanotubes weremixed to formulate a composite material that was spin cast onto apolymeric substrate to provide the sensor element 10 of a temperaturesensor 100, as depicted in FIG. 1.

A 0.1 mA drive current was then applied to the sensor element includingthe electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes, while the sensorelement was subjected to temperatures ranging from about 20° K to about350° K. The resistance of the electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes was measured from the temperature sensor using a two pointfour wire configuration in a vacuum during the above describedapplication of temperature and plotted to provide the linear temperaturedependent resistivity (normalized to resistance at 300° K) that isdepicted in FIG. 9A. As illustrated in FIG. 9A, the experimental results(resistance v. temperature) could be fitted to a linear plot (R=0.9998)illustrating the linear temperature dependent resistivity of thetemperature sensor. The temperatures sensor sensitivity was measured tobe 1.18+0.01 μV per degree with less than a 1% error.

FIG. 9B depicts the linear temperature dependent resistivity ofsimilarly prepared temperature sensor, in which the substrate iscomposed of a glass. Similar to the temperature sensor that includes apolymer based substrate, the temperature sensor having the glasssubstrate produced experimental results that could be fitted to a linearplot (R=0.99979) illustrating the linear temperature dependentresistivity of the temperature sensor.

FIG. 9C depicts the linear temperature dependent resistivity of a glasssubstrate having a sensor element including carbon nanotubes doped withorthodichlorobenzene, which illustrates that doping the carbon nanotubesdoes not affect the linearity of the resistance response of the carbonnanotubes to changes in temperature.

In each of the above examples, the linear temperature dependentresistivity of the temperature sensor did not appreciably change whensubjected to pressure variations ranging from atmospheric pressure to10⁻⁷ mm Hg. Further, the linear temperature dependent resistivity of thetemperature sensor did not change when subjected to static pressures asgreat as 200 g/5 mm.

Example 2 Linear Temperature Dependent Resistivity Independent ofPressure

FIGS. 10A and 10B are plots depicting the effect of static pressure onthe temperature sensing abilities of the temperature sensor thatprovided the data illustrated in FIG. 9A. FIG. 10A depicts there issubstantially no change in the linear response of the electricalproperties of the sensing element to changes in temperature by theapplication of pressure to temperature sensor elements composed ofsingle wall carbon nanotubes in which the number of junctions betweeneach of the electrically interconnected nanostructures is fixed.

The temperature sensors were exposed to temperatures ranging from 20° C.to 50° C., and static pressures ranging from 10 g/cm² to 4,000 g/cm².The static pressure was provided by applying a load ranging from 18 g toapproximately 8,445 g to an area of the sensor element on the orderapproximately 2.05 cm². While under the applied load, the temperaturesensor was subjected to increasing temperature, wherein the electricalproperties, i.e, resistance of the temperature sensor, was then measuredand plotted in FIG. 10A.

The slope for the linear temperature dependent resistivity was thenplotted in FIG. 10B as a function of the static pressure. FIG. 10Bindicates a variation of less than 0.005 kOhm/° C. in the slope of thelinear temperature dependent resistivity response of the temperaturesensor when being subjected to pressures ranging from about 10 g/cm² toabout 6,250 g/cm². FIG. 10B indicates that the application of pressuredoes not change the linear response of the electrical properties of thesensing element to variations in temperature. It is noted that thevariation in the slope of the linear temperature dependent resistivityresponse of the temperature sensor that is plotted in FIG. 10B is withinthe experimental error for measuring the electrical properties of thetemperature sensor, such as the variation in the contact resistance ofthe measurement device to the temperature sensor.

FIG. 10C depicts the effect of varying pressure, i.e., increasingpressure, on the temperature sensing abilities of the temperature sensorthat provided the data illustrated in FIG. 9A. In this example, a weightis placed on the sensor element having an area of 6.25 cm², wherein thetemperature sensor is being subjected to a temperature of 50° C. Theresistance of the temperature sensor was then measured as the weightbeing place on the sensor element was increased. At points A and E, thesensor was loaded with 31.2 g/cm², and at points B, C, and D, the loadwas increased to 63.68 g/cm², 170.24 g/cm² and 178.24 g/cm². At each ofthese points, i.e., A, B, C, D, and E, the resistance measured from thetemperature sensor was substantially constant. FIG. 10C indicates thatthe application of pressure does not affect the electrical propertyresponse of the sensing element to variations in temperature.

Example 3 Pressure Sensing

FIGS. 11A and 11B are plots of a change in voltage (delta voltage (V))that is measured from the sensor element of a pressure sensor as afunction of time, which illustrates the pressure sensing performance ofa pressure sensor composed of vertically aligned carbon nanotube.

FIGS. 12A-12C illustrate the pressure sensor 110 e that was used togenerate the plots included in FIGS. 11A and 11B. The pressure sensor110 e includes a bundle of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 thatis in electrical communication with metal electrodes 12 at opposing endsof the bundle of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15. The electrodes12 and connections thereto were arranged in a two point four wireconfiguration. FIGS. 12A-12C illustrate a progression in the pressurebeing applied to the pressure sensor 110 e. FIG. 12A illustrates thebundle of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 prior to theapplication of pressure. FIG. 12B illustrates the bundle of verticallyaligned carbon nanotubes 15 being subjected to a low pressure P1, inwhich the number of junctions 23 between the vertically aligned carbonnanotubes is increased in comparison to the number of junctions 23between the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes when not subjected topressure. FIG. 12C depicts the pressure sensor 110 e being subjected toa higher pressure P2 (P2>P1). The number of junctions 23 between thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 increases as the pressure isincreased from a low pressure P1, as depicted in FIG. 12B, to a highpressure P2, as depicted in FIG. 12C. The resistivity of the bundle ofcarbon nanotubes 15 decreases as the number of junctions 23 between thevertically aligned carbon nanotubes 15 increases.

Referring back to FIG. 11A, the application of pressure to the sensorelement of the pressure sensor provides a voltage change as illustratedat points A, B, C, and D, which correspond to pressure loadings of 100g, 50 g, 20 g, and approximately 1000 g. As illustrated in FIG. 11A, asthe pressure loading increases the change in the voltage increases.

FIG. 11B depicts the electrical response of a pressure sensor, asdepicted in FIGS. 12A-12C, to a constant pressure and to repeatedtapping. The frequency of the repeated tapping ranged from 0.1tap/second to 3 taps/second. The tapping area was about 5 mm².

FIG. 13A-FIG. 13C depict that pressure sensors, as depicted in FIGS.12A-12C, having sensor elements composed of vertically aligned carbonnanotubes 15 measure pressure independent of temperature. FIG. 13Adepicts the electrical response, i.e., resistance response, of thepressure sensor to increasing loads at 21° C., 30° C., and 40° C.

FIG. 13B illustrates that the resistance response of the pressure sensorwhen plotted as a function of the applied load, i.e., pressure, providesa linear plot that is independent of the temperature being applied tothe pressure sensor. The data provided in FIG. 13B was produced by apressure sensor composed of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes, asdepicted in FIGS. 12A-12C, being subjected to loads ranging from about 0g to about 850 g at temperatures of 30° C. and 40° C. The slope of plotof the resistance as a function of the applied load for the pressuresensor subjected to a temperature of 30° C. is substantially the same asthe plot of the slope of the resistance as a function of the appliedload for the pressure sensor subjected to a temperature of 40° C. It isnoted that the plots illustrated on FIG. 13B are vertically offset fromone another for the purposes of more clearly depicting the data includedtherein.

The slope for the linear pressure response in the electrical properties,i.e, resistance, of the pressure sensor illustrated in FIG. 13B was thenplotted in FIG. 13C as a function of temperature. FIG. 13C indicates avariation of less than 0.5 Ohm/° C. in the slope of the linear pressureresponse of the pressure sensor when being subjected to temperaturesranging from approximately 21° C. to approximately 40° C. FIG. 13Cindicates that the application of temperature does not change the linearresponse of the electrical properties of the sensing element tovariations in pressure. It is noted that the variation in the linearpressure response of the electrical properties of the pressure sensorthat is plotted in FIG. 13B is within the experimental error formeasuring of electrical properties of the pressure sensor, such as thevariation in the contact resistance of the measurement device to thepressure sensor.

Example 4 Temperature Sensing by Impedance Measurements

Temperature sensors having wireless properties that were produced fromsingle wall nanotube (SWNT) mats that were either formed into an RFantenna using inkjetting, or by using patterning methods. The reactivecapacitance and/or DC resistance of the RF antenna formed from the SWNTmat changes in response to temperature or pressure. This provides the RFantenna the ability to measure and transmit a wireless readout ofpressure or temperature changes.

FIG. 14A depicts that the frequency range in which a mat of single wallcarbon nanotubes exhibits temperature response is from 300 kHz to 1 Hz.300 kHz represents the critical frequency of the mat of single wallcarbon nanotubes, and 1 Hz represents the minimum frequency of the matof single wall carbon nanotubes. FIG. 14A depicts the temperatureresponse of the single carbon wall nanotube (SWNT) mats plotted on aNyquist plot. The y-axis of the Nyquist plot depicted in FIG. 14A is theimaginary impedance (Z″), and the x-axis is the real impedance (Z′). Thedata plotted in FIG. 14A illustrates that for frequencies ranging fromthe minimum frequency, e.g., 1 Hz, to the maximum frequency, e.g., 300kHz, of the single wall carbon nanotubes there is no overlap between theplots of the imaginary impedance (Z″) versus the real impendence(−Z″=f(Z)) that is measured from the mat of single wall carbon nanotubesthat is being subjected to temperatures ranging from 20° C. to 50° C.FIG. 13B illustrates a magnified portion of the low frequency portion ofthe plot that is depicted in FIG. 13A to more clearly illustrate thatthe plots of the imaginary impedance (Z″) versus the real impendence(−Z″=f(Z)) for the carbon nanotubes being subjected to temperaturesranging from 20° C. to 50° C. do not overlap. FIGS. 14A and 14Billustrate that the impedance response of the carbon nanotubes canprovide the basis of temperature measurements.

FIG. 14C depicts the slope of the real impedance response as a functionof temperature (Z′=f(T)) plotted against frequency. The slope of thereal impedance response as a function of temperature (Z′=f(T)) wascalculated from a linear regression fit at a fixed set of frequencies.The slope of the real impedance response remained relatively unchangedwithin experimental error up to 300 kHz, which illustratesfrequency-independent temperature sensing in 1 Hz to 300 kHz frequencyrange. Although not depicted in FIG. 13C, similar trends are expectedfor frequencies less than 1 Hz. At frequencies greater than 4 MHz, thesingle wall nanotubes do not show temperature response.

The temperature sensor can be used in a two frequency mixing model. Thefirst frequency, which is smaller than critical frequency, may includeinformation about temperature, and the second frequency, which isgreater than the critical frequency, may include a bit (binaryinformation) on whether the sensor reading is correct (bit=0). Forexample, if a high pressure and/or temperature, or other stimuli, damageor destroy the sensor, a reading of a non-zero slope at high frequency(bit≠0) will indicate such a condition.

FIG. 14D illustrates the impedance response of a single carbon wallnanotube (SWNT) mat to heating and cooling. More specifically, FIG. 14Dillustrates that the amplitude of the impedance response is directlyproportional to temperature change and is reproducible. FIG. 14E depictsthe experimental temperature profile. In the experiments illustrated inFIGS. 14D and 14E, the temperature sensor was operating a fixedfrequency of 100 KHz and an amplitude of 10 mV. The amplitude of theimpedance response is directly proportional to the temperature changeand is reproducible. Further, there was no observable phase changeshift, which illustrates that the temperatures response of the sensor isgenerated by the resistive component of the nanotube network and not thecapacitive component.

While the present invention has been particularly shown and describedwith respect to the preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understoodby those skilled in the art that the foregoing and other changes informs of details may be made without departing from the spirit and scopeof the present invention. It is therefore intended that the presentinvention not be limited to the exact forms and details described andillustrated, but fall within the scope of the appended claims.

1. A temperature sensor comprising: a sensor element including aplurality of electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes having a fixednumber of junctions between each of the electrically interconnectednanostructures; at least one electrical contact to the sensor element inelectrical communication with the plurality of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes; and a power source in connection withthe at least one electrical contact providing a substantially constantcurrent to the plurality of electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes, wherein resistance or capacitance of the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes is correlated to temperature, whereinthe temperature sensor measures temperature independent of pressure. 2.The temperature sensor of claim 1, wherein the plurality of electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes is fixed to a rigid substrate.
 3. Thetemperature sensor of claim 1, wherein the electrically interconnectedcarbon nanotubes are carbon nanotubes having a purity of greater than90%.
 4. The temperature sensor of claim 2, wherein the rigid substratecomprises a glass, plastic, metal, or semiconductor material.
 5. Thetemperature sensor of claim 2, wherein the rigid substrate has a shearmodulus of 1.0 Gpa or greater.
 6. The temperature sensor of claim 1,wherein the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes are fixed in amatrix comprising a polymer, a metal, a glass, a ceramic, asemiconductor material or a combination thereof.
 7. The temperaturesensor of claim 1, wherein the electrically interconnected carbonnanotubes are comprised of a mat or single or multi-wall carbonnanotubes, or the electrically interconnected nanotubes are comprised ofvertically aligned carbon nanotubes that are fixed in a rigid matrix. 8.The temperature sensor of claim 1, wherein the power source comprises anAC power supply, DC power supply or generated by thermoelectric power.9. The temperature sensor of claim 1, wherein the power source comprisesan AC power supply and the capacitance of the electricallyinterconnected carbon nanotubes is correlated to the temperature or thepower source comprises a DC power supply and the resistance of theelectrically interconnected carbon nanotubes is correlated to thetemperature.
 10. The temperature sensor of claim 1, wherein the sensorelement has a thickness ranging from about 20 nm to about 100 nm.
 11. Asensor comprising: a sensor element including a plurality ofelectrically interconnected nanostructures; a power supply to theplurality of electrically interconnected nanostructures, wherein theconnectivity of the power supply to the electrically interconnectednanostructures provides a circuit; and a resonator in electricalcommunication with the circuit, in which electrical properties to theelectrically interconnected nanostructures are varied by application oftemperature or pressure to the sensor element, wherein changes in theelectrical properties result in an impedance change in the circuit thatproduces a frequency response in the resonator, wherein the frequencyresponse of the resonator is correlated to temperature or pressure. 12.The sensor of claim 11, wherein the sensor is a temperature sensor. 13.The sensor of claim 12, wherein the electrically interconnectednanostructures comprise carbon nanotubes having a linear temperaturedependent resistance.
 14. The sensor of claim 12, wherein theelectrically interconnected nanostructures are comprised of a mat orsingle or multi-wall carbon nanotubes.
 15. The sensor of claim 11,wherein the sensor is a pressure sensor.
 16. The sensor of claim 15,wherein the interconnected nanostructures are vertically aligned carbonnanotubes.
 17. The sensor of claim 16, wherein the electricallyinterconnected nanostructures are present atop the substrate andunderlying a flexible skin.
 18. The sensor of claim 16, whereinincreases in temperature of the electrically interconnectednanostructures from 24° to 100° C. produces an increase in resistance ofat least 0.5% or less.
 19. The sensor of claim 11, wherein the resonatorand the converter are in electrical communication by wirelessconnection.
 20. A pressure sensor comprising: a sensor element comprisedof a plurality of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes fixed to asubstrate; at least one electrical contact to the sensor element inelectrical communication with the vertically aligned carbon nanotubes;and a power source in connection with the at least one electricalcontact providing a substantially constant current to the plurality ofvertically aligned carbon nanotubes, wherein resistance or capacitanceof vertically aligned carbon nanotubes is correlated to pressure. 21.The pressure sensor of claim 20, wherein the pressure sensor measurespressure independent of temperature.
 22. The pressure sensor of claim20, wherein substrate comprises a glass, plastic, metal, orsemiconductor material.
 23. The pressure sensor of claim 20, wherein thesubstrate is a rigid having a shear modulus of 0.01 Gpa or greater. 24.The pressure sensor of claim 22, wherein the substrate is a flexiblehaving a shear modulus of 1.0 Gpa or less.
 25. A pressure sensorcomprising: a plurality of flexible membranes each includingelectrically interconnected nanostructures; and a power source to theelectrically interconnected nanostructures, wherein an external forceapplied to the pressure sensor deforms at least one of the plurality offlexible membranes into contact with an adjacent flexible membrane ofthe plurality of flexible membranes, wherein changes in the electricalproperties of the plurality of flexible membranes that results from theexternal force is correlated to a pressure value for the external force.26. The sensor of claim 25, wherein each of the plurality of flexiblemembranes has a shear of less than about 1.0 Gpa.
 27. A method ofmeasuring temperature comprising: providing a sensor element composed ofa plurality of electrically interconnected nanostructures having a fixednumber of junctions between each of the electrically interconnectednanostructures; applying a current through the electricallyinterconnected nanostructures, measuring electrical properties of theelectrically interconnected nanostructures in response to an applicationof temperature to the sensor element comprised of the plurality ofelectrically interconnected nanostructures, and correlating theelectrical properties of the electrically interconnected nanostructuresto temperature.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the rigid substratehas a shear modulus of 0.1 Gpa or greater.
 29. The method of claim 28,wherein the electrically interconnected nanostructures are carbonnanotubes having a purity of greater than 50%.
 30. A method of measuringpressure comprising: providing a sensor element including a plurality ofnanostructures; applying a current through the plurality ofnanostructures; measuring electrical properties of the plurality ofnanostructures in response to an application of pressure that increasesor decreases a number of junctions in the plurality of nanostructures inthe sensor element; and correlating the electrical properties of theplurality of nanostructures to pressure.
 31. The method of claim 30,wherein the nanostructures are carbon nanotubes having a purity ofgreater than 90%.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein an increase intemperature of the nanostructures from 24° to 100° C. produces anincrease in resistance of 0.5% or less.
 33. A temperature sensorcomprising: a thermocouple body comprising a first carbon nanotube and asecond carbon nanotube, wherein the first carbon nanotube and the secondcarbon nanotubes comprise a junction at a first end of the thermocouplebody, wherein the first carbon nanotube and the second carbon nanotubehave dissimilar electrical properties; and a voltmeter in electricalcommunication with the first carbon nanotube and the second carbonnanotube, wherein application of temperature to the first end of thethermocouple body produces a current in a circuit composed of the firstcarbon nanotube and the second carbon nanotube that is proportional tothe temperature.
 34. The temperature sensor of claim 33, wherein thefirst carbon nanotube has a greater number than defects than the secondcarbon nanotube.
 35. The temperature sensor of claim 33, wherein thecurrent in the circuit composed of the first carbon nanotube and thesecond carbon nanotube is linearly proportional to the temperature thatis applied to the first end of the thermocouple.
 36. The temperaturesensor of claim 33, wherein the voltmeter is electrically connected tothe first carbon nanotube and the second carbon nanotube at a second endof the thermocouple body, wherein the second end of the thermocouplebody is opposite the first end of the thermocouple body.
 37. Thetemperature sensor of claim 33, wherein the temperature sensor measuresvalues ranging from about −200° C. to about +1200° C.
 38. A sensorcomprising: a substrate; a first sensor element present on a firstportion of the substrate comprised of a first plurality nanostructureshaving a fixed number of electrical junctions, wherein resistance orcapacitance of the electrically interconnected carbon nanotubes iscorrelated to temperature independent of pressure; and a second sensorelement present on a second portion of the substrate composed of asecond plurality of nanostructures in which the number of junctionsbetween of the second plurality of nanostructures varies with changes inpressure that is applied to the second sensor element, whereinresistance or capacitance of the second plurality of carbon nanotubes iscorrelated to pressure.